History Coursework What were the origins of the Cultural Re Essay Example

History Coursework: What were the origins of the Cultural Re Essay For my history coursework I have chosen the topic of the Cultural Revolution and Maos China. The question will be broken into two parts, one which is based on the origins of the Cultural Revolution and what happened in it. The other part will be based on how it effected China after it had occurred. This investigation will include extensive research into why the Cutural Revolution was launched and a brief note on major events which occurr during it. And the consequences of the Cultural Revolution and its effects on Chinas society, economy, politics and other important aspects. I willfirst explain the origins which will be followed by finding the effects in general, relate them to the various aspects which I stated and explain how they can effect the society, government, economy or other aspects. After I have found a sufficient amount of effects and explained them, I will sum up all of them and reach a conclusion as to what extent did the Cultural Revolution effect China. All of this w ill be read from secondary sources. To start off I think it would be wise to start my coursework off by explaining briefly why Mao had decided to launch the Cultural revolution and what happened in it. The sources which I have chosen are text books made by J.A.G Roberts: Modern China an illustrated history, John Wood and Andrew McManus: China Revolutionary Leadership. To summarise all my sources on the origins and events of the Cultural Revolution, this is what happened. After the major failure of the Great Leap Forward the party thought that it would be wise that Mao took a step back and lay low while Deng Xiaopeng, Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai mend the economy. However eventually Mao began to feel like he was not being heard and this is one of the reasons which he launched the revolution, to put him back into power. There were many reasons the launching of this revolution two which are the main ones are to have a permanent ideological change History Coursework What were the origins of the Cultural Re Essay Example History Coursework: What were the origins of the Cultural Re Essay For my history coursework I have chosen the topic of the Cultural Revolution and Maos China. The question will be broken into two parts, one which is based on the origins of the Cultural Revolution and what happened in it. The other part will be based on how it effected China after it had occurred. This investigation will include extensive research into why the Cutural Revolution was launched and a brief note on major events which occurr during it. And the consequences of the Cultural Revolution and its effects on Chinas society, economy, politics and other important aspects. I willfirst explain the origins which will be followed by finding the effects in general, relate them to the various aspects which I stated and explain how they can effect the society, government, economy or other aspects. After I have found a sufficient amount of effects and explained them, I will sum up all of them and reach a conclusion as to what extent did the Cultural Revolution effect China. All of this w ill be read from secondary sources. To start off I think it would be wise to start my coursework off by explaining briefly why Mao had decided to launch the Cultural revolution and what happened in it. The sources which I have chosen are text books made by J.A.G Roberts: Modern China an illustrated history, John Wood and Andrew McManus: China Revolutionary Leadership. To summarise all my sources on the origins and events of the Cultural Revolution, this is what happened. After the major failure of the Great Leap Forward the party thought that it would be wise that Mao took a step back and lay low while Deng Xiaopeng, Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai mend the economy. However eventually Mao began to feel like he was not being heard and this is one of the reasons which he launched the revolution, to put him back into power. There were many reasons the launching of this revolution two which are the main ones are to have a permanent ideological change

An analysis of I Have a Dream essays

An analysis of I Have a Dream essays This famous speech by Martin Luther King, Jr, in 1963 is an example of structured and impassioned rhetoric that is also carefully designed to elicit a specific response and to appeal to a wide ranging audience. The use of language and stylistic devices in the speech serve to enforce the central massage, which is repeated and built on throughout in different contexts. The central thrust of the speech lies in the demand for freedom and equality for African Americans or the Negro' population. This is a carefully structured and controlled argument that begins with the necessity to rectify the injustices of the past and then, logically and emotionally, builds on the legitimacy of this demand. This is enforced by a veiled threat that the demand for equality is not to be taken lightly; which in turn is ameliorated by a reassurance that the speech is not a call to irresponsible actions. Lastly, the speech emphasizes that the issue of freedom and basic human rights for the Negro is related to the freedom of all in a harmonious and united society. Throughout the speech the use of language is concise and controlled and aimed at evoking specific responses. I will focus on the use of metaphor that dramatically enforces the central message. The analysis also focuses on the way in which the speech is constructed to appeal to the audience's sense of morality and justice and to allay any preconceptions or fears about radical black empowerment. The first paragraph encapsulates the intention of the speech, namely that while the Proclamation of Emancipation is a historical fact it is still not yet a fact in the daily lives of the Negro people. The immediate intention is to emphasize the legitimacy of what is to follow and to refute preconceptions relating to these demands. The sense of justice and legitimacy is emphasized by the use of historical/Biblical terminology and style to em...

The Blank Slate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Blank Slate - Essay Example The most important chapter in this book is Part IV â€Å"Know Thyself†, Chapter 12 In Touch With Reality and Chapter 13 Out of Our Depths. One of the highlights discussed in these two chapters is about discrimination. According to Steven Pinker, â€Å"Mental images are not really images at all, but instead consist of complicated opinions, positions, doubts, and passionately held convictions, rooted in experience and amendable by argument, by more experience, or by coercion. Our mental images of black men, white judges, the press, and so on do not take the form of pictures of the kind that you can hang up (or â€Å"deconstruct†) on a museum wall.... Hitler did not hate Jews because there were pictures of swarthy Semites with big noses imprinted on his cerebellum; racism does not exist in America because the picture of O. J. Simpson on the cover of Time is too dark. The view that visual clichà ©s shape beliefs is both too pessimistic, in that it supposes that people are helplessly imprisoned by received stereotypes, and too optimistic, in that it supposes that if you could change the images you could change the beliefs†(Pinker 217). ... Pinker supported this view by saying that it is only man himself who is building a wall or division among others. The human desire within him creates the conflict because in his mind, he knows what is right from wrong. We think, feel and learn from our daily experiences as we continue to explore life. This conclusion may be drawn in correlation from this statement, â€Å"Our understanding of life has only been enriched by the discovery that living flesh is composed of molecular clockwork rather than quivering protoplasm, or that birds soar by exploiting the laws of physics rather than defying them. In the same way, our understanding of ourselves and our cultures can only be enriched by the discovery that our minds are composed of intricate neural circuits for thinking, feeling, and learning rather than blank slates, amorphous blobs, or inscrutable ghosts†(Pinker 72). Man only draws out a concept based on the images he sees. This conventional formulation of conclusion based onl y on the physical attributes to embody the holistic essence of a person is also known as stereotyping. We should not look only at the physical aspect of things or persons that are presented before us. What we may see outside may be false or misleading. We should dig deeper and use our minds to decipher a concept as we look beyond what is only seen on the outside, but also on the inside. To support this impression, Pinker stated that â€Å"Also, people's ability to set aside stereotypes when judging an individual is accomplished by their conscious, deliberate reasoning. When people are distracted or put under pressure to respond quickly, they are more likely to judge that a member of an ethnic group has all

Home Depot CEO Robert Nardelli Severance Pay Case Study

Home Depot CEO Robert Nardelli Severance Pay - Case Study Example On a closer look many factors are behind Robert Nardelli's huge severance package that cannot be traced to Nardelli alone; but there are measures that could be used to done to reign over-the-top CEO compensations such as Nardelli's. According to Alan Sloan, business analyst of Washington Post (Sloan, p. D01), Nardelli is not receiving a severance pay more than he was actually entitled to under the employment contract he signed in 2000 with the board of Home Depot. Ken Langone, one of the founders of Home Depot, continued Sloan was in fact was one of those of people who was involved in negotiating for Nardelli, one of the two GE executives who was one-time candidate to replace famous Jack Welch when he left GE. In the same article, Paul Hodgson, a senior research associate at the Corporate Library which investigates corporate governance said that the trouble started in 2000, and that everything was in Nardelli's contract. ... One of the issues raised by Nardelli's case was how shareholders who are the owners-at-large of a company could be relegated to the sidelines in deciding executive pay packages. This was borne out when Nardelli with an absent board presided alone over the annual stockholders held on May 28, 2006 in which he was criticized for cutting off stockholders' questions over his compensation (NPR, January 6, 2007; Grow par. 8-9). On December 2006, Relational Investors rebuked Home Depot's management and called on a review of the firm's direction and even a possibility of a sale. What came to pass with Nardelli's resignation a month later, with him leaving with a fat severance package even highlighted the need for more power granted to shareholders in deciding what and how much to pay company CEOs. In a report by CNNMoney.com, a proposal filed by one of Home Depot's investors and endorsed by long-time shareholders Laborers' International Union of America (LIUNA) would require the board to get shareholder approval for what was termed as "extraordinary retirement benefits". In other companies such as Sprint, GE, Qwest, Delta and Verizon, investors have filed similar proposals to scale down severance packages according Hodgson in an interview with CNNMoney.com. Home Depot CEO Robert Nardelli Severance Pay Another reason for reducing huge pay packages of huge CEOs is in the interest of wealth equality. National Public Radio reported in an article by Uri Berliner that one of the reasons that the very rich or the top-earning one percent continue to increase their share of the country's wealth (from 8 percent to 16 percent in 2004) was that affluent people own more in stocks. CEOs like

British Airways Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

British Airways - Assignment Example The company has won several awards for best in customer service, the best airline, just to name a few (British Airways Plc SWOT Analysis, 2014, p. 4). This is the most recognized motivation model. Maslow suggested that in this model, people have a set of strong needs that are possible to arrange in a hierarchy. Once the motivation needs have been satisfied, they decline in importance. After a need has been satisfied another emerges to take its place. In addition, the lower needs must be satisfied before the upper level needs. The model states that an individual has five types of needs (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2009, p. 131). 1. Outcomes- first level outcomes refer to performance and the second level outcomes are the consequences in which the first level outcomes lead to (result of performance is some reward for attaining goal). 4. Valence- this is the strength of the employee’s preference for any particular reward or outcome. The first level outcome valence is the sum of the product of the associated second level outcomes and their instrumentalities. Thus, the first level valence depends on the extent to which the results are valuable in the second level outcomes. The valence can be either negative or positive (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012, p. 91). The logic of expectancy theory is that British Airways administration intervenes on the work situations to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities and valence that support organizational goals. To influence the expectancies, British Airways selects people with the appropriate abilities and skills, providing them with continuous professional development, supporting them with the needed resources and identifying clear performance goals. To accomplish this, British Airways makes the desired performance goals attainable. The administration makes it clear what is expected of the employees thus enabling them to attain the goals. To influence instrumentality, the administrators clarify the

Positivist and Interpretivist Research

Positivist and Interpretivist Research Qualitative research can be defined as, A multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals lives (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Qualitative research emphasizes qualities of entities the processes and meanings that occur naturally (Denzin Lincoln, 2000). Qualitative research methods have for many years made a significant contribution to management research. In this essay, I critically evaluate Gepharts paper on qualitative research, where he writes pertaining to traditional research methods such as positivism and post positivism, interpretive research and critical postmodernism. In the second part of the essay, I evaluate David Silvermans On Finding and Manufacturing Qualitative Data from the book A Very Short, Fairly Interesting and Reasonably Cheap Book about Qualitative Research where his methodology merges with the two methods highlighted in Gepharts paper. Gephart in his paper brings to light three main research traditions used in management research. They are positivism and postpositivism, interpretive research and critical post modernism, which have evolved from the behaviourist and cognitive perspectives of qualitative research. In this part of the essay I shall give an overview about the three research traditions and the distinctions between them. Positivist and post positivist research traditions arise from the behaviourist perspective of qualitative research which is based on the knowledge of consistent relationships. The term positivism was first introduced by Auguste Comte, Our doctrine is one which renders hypocrisy and oppression alike impossible. And it now stands forward as the result of all the efforts of the past, for the regeneration of order, which, whether considered individually or socially, is so deeply compromised by the anarchy of the present time. It establishes a fundamental principle by which true philosophy and sound polity are brought into correlation; a principle which can be felt as well as proved, and which is at once the keystone of a system and a basis of government. (Auguste Comte, 1798-1857). A major tenet of logical positivism is its thesis of the unity of science (Hempel, 1969 Kolakowski, 1968). In its broadest sense, positivism is a position that holds the goal of knowledge. In a positivist view of the world, science is seen as the way to get at truth, to understand the world well enough to predict and control it. In other words, Positivism assumes an a priori (truth) which is discoverable through methodical, rigorous, careful observation that can be proven through testable and repeatable methodologies. A post-positivist might begin by recognizing that the way scientists think and work and the way people think in their everyday life are not distinctly different. It can be defined as, non-foundational approach to human knowledge that rejects the view that knowledge is erected on absolutely secure foundation for there are not such things; Post-positivists accept fallibilism (the philosophical doctrine that absolute knowledge is impossible) as an unavoidable fact of life (Phillips Burbules, 2000). It is characterized by a more nuanced belief in an ontologically realist out there reality that can only be known within some level of probability (Groat Wang, 2002). Additionally, Post-positivists concede that the experimental methodologies employed in the natural sciences are often inappropriate for research involving people (Groat Wang, 2002). Within Post-positivist methodologies, the researcher is autonomous from the subject of inquiry, objectivity is important, and the inquirer manipu lates and observes in a dispassionate, objective manner. This perspective assumes modified experimental, manipulative methodologies that can include both qualitative and quantitative practices (Denzin Lincoln, 2003). Positivism and post-positivism are almost similar, the only difference is, Post-positivism takes into account the criticisms against and weakness of the rigidity of positivism, and now informs much contemporary social science research, including reality-oriented qualitative inquiry (Patton, 1990). Interpretive research tradition arises from the cognitive perspective of qualitative research which is based on shared understanding and awareness of multiple social and organisational realities. The foundation assumption for interpretive research is that knowledge is gained or at least filtered, through social constructions such as language, consciousness, and shared meanings (Klein Myers, 1999). In addition to the emphasis on the socially constructed nature of reality, interpretive research acknowledges the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is being explored, and the situational constraints shaping this process. Interpretive research traditions take the position that humans are social animals that live in societies and as such investigate and interpret lived experience and their inter subjective realities (Bruce H. Rowlands, 2005). Interpretive researchers thus attempt to understand phenomena through accessing the meanings participants assign to them (Orlikowsk i Baroudi, 1991). Unlike atoms, molecules and electrons, people create and attach their own meanings to the world around them and to the behaviour that they manifest in that world (Schutz, 1973). Interpretive studies assume that people create and associate their own subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact with the world around them. Positivism and Interpretive research can be distinguished as objective versus subjective (Burrell Morgan, 1979), nomothetic versus idiographic (Luthans Davis, 1982), quantitative versus qualitative (Van Maanen, 1979), outsider versus insider (Evered Louis, 1981), and etic versus emic (Morey Luthans, 1984). Critical postmodernism transcends mere description or reconstructs reality and derives meaning from situations through its critical approach. Critical postmodern theory is about the play of differences of micro political movements and impulses of ecology, feminism, multiculturalism, and spirituality without any unifying demand for theoretical integration or methodological consistency (Boje, Fitzgibbons Steingard, 1996). Critical postmodern is definable as the nexus of critical theory, post colonialism, critical pedagogy and postmodern theory (Boje, 2001). Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian journey into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). Critical postmodern spatial theory privileges the lived spatialities of left-margined communities as sites of socio-spatial critique. A postmodern identity politics enacts critical postmodern spatial theory by nurturing the development of, and solidarity between, counter publics, which are subaltern community spaces where private spatialities of alienation are brought to public discourse (Allen, 1999).This tradition is focused on how meanings and reality are shaped over time and seeks to uncover and understand the historical evolution of these meanings, practices, contradictions and expose hidden inequalities in societies. The five distinguishing characteristics of the three research traditions (i) positivism and post positivism (ii) interpretive research and (iii) critical postmodernism, are as follows. First is in terms of the underlying assumptions about reality. Positivism and postpositivism adheres to realism and rely on the assumption of an objective world external to the mind that is mirrored by scientific data and theories; interpretive approach proceeds through the advocacy of relativism with investigation proceeding with data derived from interlinking contextual realities so that data holds both objective and subjective characters; while critical postmodernism adheres to historical realism or the assumption that material or symbolic reality comprised by multidimensional values that crystallizes over time so that the investigation involves the collection of objective and subjective data. Second is in terms of the goal of the investigation. Positivism and post-positivism proceeds with the goal of discovering truths, interpretive research is in line with the goal of describing and understanding of meanings, and critical postmodernism is guided by the goal to uncover hidden interests and contradictions in order to arrive at criticisms that in turn facilitate change. Third is in terms of the tasks involved in the investigation. Positivism and postpositivism involves the identification, explanation and control of variables directed towards the verification of hypothesis or non-falsified hypotheses, interpretive research applies through producing descriptions of members meaning and definitions of situation in order to have a clear understanding of the manner that reality is constructed, while critical postmodernism involves the task of determining insights from the structures of relationships and historical changes that reveal contradictions. Fourth is in relation to the unit of analysis of the research traditions. Positivism and postpositivism utilises variables as the core unit of analysis, interpretive research focuses on verbal and non verbal actions, while critical postmodernism centres on contradictions, criticism, signs and symbolism as key elements of the research. Variables become the core unit of analyses because of their objective reality. Verbal and non verbal are the units of analyses in interpretive research because of their subjective nature. Conflict, criticism and symbolism are the core unit of analyses of postmodernism because these elements appropriately capture historical realism. Fifth is with regard to the focus of the methods. Positivism and postpositivism involves the discovery of facts and the comparison of these facts with predefined hypothesis or propositions, interpretive research does not predefine dependent or independent variables, does not set out to test hypotheses, but aims to produce an understanding of the social context of the phenomenon and the process whereby the phenomenon influences and is influenced by the social context (Walsham, 1995), while critical postmodernism involves the derivation and understanding of historical evolution of meanings, conflicts and inequities evolving through time as the method of data gathering and analyses. Since positivism and post positivism involve objective reality, the methods that apply in these research are those useful in gathering facts while methods able to derive meaning appropriately applies to interpretive research and critical postmodernism because these should be able to capture subjective realities in order to derive meaning. Over the last generation there has been a shift in qualitative methods, from a scientist-oriented research, toward a more dynamic representational strategy .Beginning in the late 19th century, Antipositivism was perhaps the first movement to challenge the rigid nature of dominant Positivism. Early Antipositivists like Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936) and later, Max Weber (1864-1920), addresses the Positivist failure to appreciate the fundamental experience of life, and instead favour physical and mental regularities, neglecting the meaningful experience that was really the defining characteristic of human phenomena. Adorno, 1969 (cited in Fuchs. C Sandoval. M., Positivism, Postmodernism, or Critical Theory? : A Case Study of Communications Students Understanding of Criticism) stresses that positivism is only oriented on appearance, whereas critical theory stresses the difference between essence and appearance. Above all, critical theory, poststructuralism, a nd postmodernism are effective as critiques of positivism, interrogating taken-for-granted assumptions about the ways in which people write and read science (Stockman, 1984). Such opinions against positivism lead to a breakthrough from positivism to other research traditions such as interpretive research and critical postmodernism which meet the needs of current researchers. In contradiction to Gephart, Silverman takes a rather interpretive and critical postmodernist stance when writing his piece about manufactured data and found data. Silverman in his paper uses Sacks insights to support the positive things that can be learnt through observations (found data) and the critique view on the use of interview data (manufactured data). He also states that researchers prefer to manufacture data using artificial research settings such as interviews and focus group which use pre-determined research questions. Manufacture of data to answer a specified research problem is precisely the method which quantitative or positivist researchers prefer as explained by Gephart. Alternatively, naturally occurring (found) data arises from being aware that the research situation is not straight forward as eliciting data from interviews. Indeed collecting data through reading, looking, listening, facial expressions, sights, sounds, smells etc are taken into account. It provides a broader perspective of the research problem in hand when compared to manufactured data. Data manufactured through interview talk is approached with very different expectations, this can be explained by, The meaning of an answer is not a straightforward matter of external or internal reference, but also depends on the local and broader discursive system in which the utterance is embedded (Wetherell Potter, 1988). Positivist might interpret interviews in a different manner when compared to interpretive and critical postmodernist. Positivist researchers believe that their research methods and data mirror reality. The positivist researcher might strive to discover objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind, Rather than an interviewee providing prepared/manufactured responses to standard questions designed to be unbiased and neutral, we strive to engage in social construction of a narrative with our participants. In this way we hope to activate the respondents stock of knowledge. (Richie and Rigano, 2001: 744, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research : Anne B Ryan). We regard ourselves as people who conduct research among other people, learning with them, rather than conducting research on them (Wolcott, 1990). Researchers dont ask themselves is this the truth? Rather, we talk about the issues raised during the interviews, the participants reactions, and our interpretations of these interwoven ideas. In this context, it seems right to open up the interpretive discussions [to our respondents], not f or them to confirm or disconfirm them, but to share our thinking and how the ideas might be used. (Richie and Rigano, 2001: 752, cited in Post-Positivist Approaches To Research : Anne B Ryan) Use of manufactured data in qualitative research might make the respondent bias his result, as stated by Crotty (1998) Leading to the epistemological idea that the very act of observation causes a particle to behave differently. Sacks states that, we can treat what people say as an account which positions itself in a particular context. Here the researcher is viewing what people say as an activity awaiting analysis, thus the researchers interpretations play a key role in manufacturing data. Bringing such subjectivity to the fore, backed with quality arguments rather than statistical exactness (Garcia Quek, 1997). Many researchers have criticized the use of manufactured data in qualitative research, which is the positivist view as stated by Gephart and the greater use of naturally occurring data or found data which is the interpretivistic approach. The Dead Social Scientist Test describes manufactured data as, The test is whether the interaction would have taken place in the form that it did had the researcher not been born or if the researcher had got run over on the way to the university that morning'(Potter, 1996). In all research, the choice of data depends on the research problem. Equally, there is no question that all polarities should be investigated particularly where, as here, they involve an appeal to nature (Speer 2002). As Kuhn (1964) stated in his publication The structure of Scientific Knowledge, scientists work withinà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬and are constrained byà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬prevailing paradigms while questioning the alleged objectivity and value-free neutrality of scientific discovery. Interpretive approach is synonymous with ethnography. Doing ethnography is doing an interpretation of the behaviour of human subjects in their local settings. Interpretivistic do not reject the concept of a real world out there but presented the reality which mattered most and they try to understand the respondents response in their own terms. Researchers are the measuring instruments and their understanding will derive from personal experience rather than manipulation of variables, as Hirschman(1986) puts it, personally experienced knowledge serves as scientific data. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers interpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality; hence the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research. Qualitative researchers can access naturally occurring data by finding everyday features in extraordinary settings, this is an interpretive approach. Naturally occurring data can serve as a wonderful basis for theorizing about things that the researcher would never imagine. What ordinarily happens in the world around us means we can start with things that are not currently imaginable, by showing that they happened (Sacks, 1992). Sanday (1979) states that, empathy and identification with the observed people are needed to go about the understanding held by the human subjects. Geertz says that, the trick is not to get yourself into some inner correspondence with your informants. The researcher uses ethnography and manages to interpret an individual behaviour in such a way that it no longer appears to be absurd but appears rational. A successful interpretation is one which makes clear the meaning originally present in a confused, fragmented, cloudy form.. what is initially strange, mystifying, puzzling, contradictory (for the researcher) is no longer so, is accounted for (Taylor, 1979). As stated by Potter (2002), naturally occurring data opens up a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in interview questions. In addition to the interpretive approach through the critical approach, the researcher is able to delve into the determination of differential characteristics, nature of conflict, aspects underlying differences and conflicts, and consequences of differences and conflict which help to address the issues that arise in naturally occurring data. With these types of information derived through the application of critical postmodernist tradition, the investigative approach is able to assess data and explain reasons for these differences and conflicts that in turn catalyses the determination of solutions that leads to eventual change. It can be supported as with the following evidence. Critical postmodern theory is a way to get a clearer understanding of the relation between modern and postmodern, and take a Deleuzian journey into the middle of the hybridity of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern (Boje, 1995). A critical postmodern project can move us beyond exploitation, racism, sexism, and abuse by reframing and restoring organization theory away from its patriarchal lingo in order to reaffirm social justice, equality, democracy, and the wonders of multiplicity (Boje, 1995: 1004). In a critical postmodern theory, such as Tamara, we can explore the micro-practices of organizational life, as well as contextualize the stories of the marginal Other, within the workings of a post-industrial supply and distribution chain addicted to sweatshops, and the cover-stories produced and distributed by the postmodern storytelling organizations that turn out consumer identities and spectacles for mass consumption (Boje, 1995: 99 8-2). On the plus side, there is always resistance to the forces of global and individual domination and exploitation that stem from the strange hybridity of premodern, modern, and postmodern organizing amalgams. Ultimately, the criticism provides insights into historical events to catalyse change that should be for the betterment of relationships and systems. It can be summarised that good qualitative research is difficult and challenging to undertake. Data manufactured through artificial research settings such as interviews and focus groups restricts the information available to the researcher and it also leads to biased results since the respondent is aware of the researchers need. The positivist researcher might strive to manufacture data by discovering objectively the truth hidden in the subjects mind; while interpretivist tries to collect naturally occurring data by understanding the respondents response in their own terms. Reality has to be constructed through the researchers interpretation and ability to communicate the respondents reality; hence as Silverman states the researcher has to be a part of the research to conduct a successful research. Thus naturally occurring data (interpretivist) is more suitable for qualitative research than manufactured data (positivist) because, Naturally occurring data does not flood the research setting with the researchers own categories (embedded in questions, probes, stimuli, vignette and so on) It does not put people on the position of disinterested experts on their own and others practices and thoughts. It does not leave the researcher does not leave the researcher to make a range of more or else problematic inferences from the data collection arena to topic as the topic itself is directly studied. It opens a wide variety of novel issues that are outside the prior expectations embedded in, say, interview questions. It is a rich record of peoples living their lives, pursuing goals, managing institutional tasks and so on. (Potter,2002) Ultimately the type of data used in qualitative research depends on the research topic hence researchers prefer to combine and test their observations by asking questions from the research sample. REFERENCES Journal Articles: Agger.B., 1991. Critical Theory, Poststructuralism, Postmodernism: Their Sociological Relevance. Annual Review Social, 17, pp.105-31. Allen S. Lee.,1991. Integrating Positivist and Interpretive Approaches to Organizational Research, Organization Science, 2(4), pp.342-365. Boje, D. M., 1995. Stories of the Storytelling Organization:A postmodern analysis of Disney as Tamara-Land. Academy of Management Journal, 38(4), pp.997-1035. Boje, D. M., Fitzgibbons, D. E., Steingard, D. S., 1996. Storytelling at Administrative Science Quarterly: Warding off the postmodern barbarians. pp. 60-92. Boje, D. M., 2001c. Tamara Manifesto. Tamara: Journal of Critical Postmodern Organization Science (Online). 1, pp.15-24. Available online at: http://www.zianet.com/boje /tamara Boje . D. M., 2001. Carnivalesque Resistance To Global Spectacle: A Critical Postmodern Theory Of Public Administration. Administrative Theory Praxis, 23(3), pp.431-458. Evered, Roger. Meryl R. Louis., 1981. Alternative Perspectives in the Organizational Sciences: Inquiry from the Inside and Inquiry from the Outside. Academy of Management Review, 6(3), pp.385-395. Fischer. F., 1998. Beyond Empiricism: Policy Inquiry In Postpositivist Perspective. Studies Journal, 26(1), pp.129-146. Fuchs.C. Sandoval. M., Positivism, Postmodernism, or Critical Theory? A Case Study of Communications Students Understandings of Criticism. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 6(2). Gephart R., 2004. Qualitative Research and the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), pp.454-462. Hirschman, E., 1986. Humanistic inquiry in marketing research: philosophy, method, and criteria. Journal of Marketing Research, 23, pp.236-49. Johnson.P et al., 2006. Evaluating qualitative management research: Towards a contingent criteriology. International Journal of Management Review, 8(3), pp.131-156. Klein, H. Myers, M., 1999. A Set of Principals for Conducting and Evaluating Interpretive Field Studies in Information Systems. MIS Quarterly, 23(1), pp.67-94. Luthans, Fred. Tim R. V. Davis., 1982. An Idiographic Approach to Organizational Behaviour Research: The Use of Single Case Experimental Designs and Direct Measure. Academy of Management Review, 7(3), pp.380-391. Morey, Nancy C. Fred Luthans., 1984. An Idiographic Approach to Organizational Research. Academy of Management Review, 9(1), pp.27-36. Orlikowski, W.J. Baroudi, J.J., Studying Information Technology in Organizations: Research Approaches and Assumptions. Information Systems Research, 2, pp.1-28 Potter, J., 2002. Two kinds of natural. Discourse Studies, 4 (4), pp.539-42. Rowlands. B., 2005. Grounded in Practice: Using Interpretive Research to Build Theory. The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methodology, 3(1), pp.81-92. Available online at, www.ejbrm.com. Sanday, Peggy R., 1979. The Ethnographic Paradigm(s). Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), pp.527-538. Sanna Talja., 1999. Analyzing Qualitative Interview Data: The Discourse Analytic Method University of Tamper, Library Information Science Research,21(4), pp.459-477. Schutz, Alfred. 1973. Concept and Theory Formation in the Social Sciences. Maurice Natanson (Ed.), Collected papers, 1, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, pp48-66. Speer, S., 2002 Natural and contrived data: a sustainable distinction?. Discourse Studies, 4 (4), pp.511-25. Szmigin, I. Foxall,. G., 2000. Interpretive Consumer Research: how far have we come?, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 3(4), pp.187-197. Van Maanen, John., 1979. Reclaiming Qualitative Methods for Organizational Research : A Preface. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), pp.520-526. Walsham, G., 1995. Interpretive Case Studies in IS Research: Nature and Method. European Journal of Information Systems, 4(2), pp.74-81. BOOKS: Burrell, Gibson. Gareth, Morgan., 1979. Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. London: Heinemann Crotty, M., 1998. The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process. London: Sage Publications. Denzin, N. Lincoln, Y. S., 1994. Introduction : Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin Y. W. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research: 1-17. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Denzin. N. K. Lincoln, Y. S., 2000. Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of qualitative research. 2nd ed.: 1-28. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Denzin, Norman., Guba Lincoln., 2003. Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging Influences in The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues. London: Sage Publications. Geertz, Clifford., 1983. From the Natives point of View : On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding. In C. Geertz (Eds.), The Legacy of Logical Positivism, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, pp.57-84. Garcia, L. Quek, F., 1997. Qualitative research in information systems: time to be subjective?, in A.S. Lee, J. Liebenau and J.I. DeGross, eds. Information systems and qualitative research. London: Chapman and Hall, pp .459. Groat, Linda., David Wang., 2002. Architectural Research Methods. New York, NY: Wiley. Hempel, Carl G., 1969. Logical Positivism and the Social Sciences. In P. Achinstein S. Barker (Eds.), The Legacy of Logical Positivism, Baltimre, MD: John Hopkins Press, 57-84 Kolakowski, L., 1968. The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Though. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Little John. D.,2007. Theoretical perspectives in Pedagogical Practice: Applying Post-positivism and Activity Theory in Todays Technologically Mediated design Education. Patton, Michael, Q., 2002. Qualitative Research Evaluation Methods. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 3rd Edition. Phillips, D. Burbules, N., 2000. Post-positivism and Educational Research. Lanham, MA: Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Potter, J., 1996. Discourse analysis and constructionist approaches: theoretical background. In J.Richardson (ed.) Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester, BPS Books, pp.125-140. Sacks, H., 1992. Lectures on Conversation, edited by Gail Jefferson with an Introduction by Emmanuel Schegloff, Blackwell, Oxford, 2. Silverman, D., 2007. A Very Short, Fairly Interesting and Reasonably Cheap Book about Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Pp.37-60. Stockman, N., 1984. Antipositivist Theories of the Sciences. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Turner, B. S . , ed. 1990. Theories o/Modernity and Postmodernity . Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Taylor, Charles., 1979. Interpretation and the Sciences of Man., R. Rabinow W. Sullivan (Eds.), Interpretive Social Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, pp.25-71. Wetherell, M. Potter, J., 1988. Discourse analysis and the identification of interpretive repertoires. In: Antaki, Charles Editor. 1988. Analysing everyday experience: A casebook of methods Sage, London, England, pp. 168-183. Wolcott,H.F., 1990. Writing up qualitative research. Sage publications, 20. ONLINE ARTICLES: Anne. B .R., Post- Positivist Approaches To Research. http://eprints.nuim.ie/874/1/post-positivist_approaches_to_research.pdf Boje.D., 2001. What is Critical Postmodern Theory? http://business.nmsu.edu/~dboje/pages/what_is_critical_postmodern.htm Trochim. W., Positivism Post-Positivism www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/positvsm.php

moby dick paper :: essays research papers

In the year 1891, Herman Melville, of New York City, New York, passed away, saddening a wide and diverse fan base that extended across the globe. His works can be enjoyed whether your 6 or 60, relating to everyone because his books involve real people with flaws and downfall, and basic human emotion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Melville was an exceptional author, influenced greatly by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Hawthorne influenced Melville in such a way, it inspired him to rewrite Moby Dick, which was later inscribed to Hawthorne as a token of Melville’s admiration for his genius. The three works, Moby Dick, Billy Budd, and Benito Cyrano, all written by Herman Melville, have unique qualities and characters that all differ greatly. Although they all take place on ships at sea, you will also notice that the protagonist characters, Captain Delano, Captain Benito Cereno, Captain Ahab, and Billy Budd, appear to have very similar qualities, all of which that are entailed in every man which are strengths and weaknesses along with desire and flaws. These subtle qualities shows Melville’s signature for his distinct writing making for all these stories to be considered among the greatest works of literature. In Benito Cyrano There were two protagonists, Captain Delano and Captain Benito Cereno. Captain Delano obvious weakness may have been his behavior aboard the ship, The San Dominick. He proved to be too good-natured, and way to easily dismissing any thought of foul play. This may have also been his strength, for if he had noticed such plans to over throw the ship, he would have been easily killed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the story, an explanation seemed to be the only thing on Captain Delano mind. He was unsure by what he saw aboard the ship and couldn’t figure out what was going on. He ordered his men to board Cereno’s ship and put a stop to the slave’s rebellion after Cereno was rescued, and also made sure that Babo and Atufal were put on trial and punished. The character of Amasa Delano, at first glance, seemed heroic, was also flawed, though it was his weakness that saved him, as many characters are in Melville’s writing. Benito Cereno, captain of the San Dominick, appears to be a weak and unstable, constantly fainting. He does not seem at all strong and seems very suspicious, but, fortunately, did not panic when approached by Captain Delano and by staying strong and maintaining his calm; playing a big role in saving both their lives.